Babies in trendy low-riding pushchairs like the Bugaboo Bee and Babyzen Yoyo are exposed to significantly more air pollution than their parents during the school run.UK researchers found infants as high as 2.6 feet from the ground in their pushchair breathe in 44 per cent more pollutants than the adult pushing them.

Babies in the bottom of a double-seater pushchair, meanwhile, are exposed to nearly three quarters more pollutants than their fellow rider sitting just above.

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis also revealed traces of microscopic particles in the air brake and tyres from nearby cars at low levels. Researchers say pushchair covers reduced the amount of particles in the breathable air – but not completely.Parents and carers can help kids in buggies by keeping them as high from the ground as they can and reduce their exposure to busy traffic hotspots.

Withdrawal

While tantrums may be an obvious sign of stress, withdrawal is common as well, said Dr. Christina Johns, M.D., a pediatrician, pediatric emergency physician and senior medical adviser for PM Pediatrics in Annapolis, Md.

Dr. Johns said a total lack of emotion is often a behavioral change spotted in very young children under stress. “While the biological mechanism isn’t exactly clear, stress and anxiety can cause a change in hormones and body chemicals that are ultimately expressed as physical symptoms,” Dr. Johns said.

Even if your child is shutting down emotionally, you should continue to reassure them that they are safe. Keeping to a familiar routine can help, as does regular physical exercise, she said.

Disrupted sleep

Nope, this time it may not be a typical sleep regression. “Sleep problems such as difficulty falling asleep or waking up in the middle of the night can signal stress,” said Dr. Florencia Segura, M.D., a pediatrician with Einstein Pediatrics in Vienna, Va. A variation on this may include an excessive need for reassurance prompted by activities such as bedtime, Dr. Segura said. Translation: Your child’s bedtime routine may now go on for hours.If this occurs daily without other associated symptoms — and the child has had a normal physical exam — it’s most likely a somatic sign of stress.

Try engaging your child in a constructive activity, since bored or frustrated kids are more likely to focus on their stress, especially in the evenings, she suggested. Even something as simple as playing with measuring cups and spoons in the bathtub before bed would be entertaining.

Abdominal pain

This is a common manifestation of stress in young children, said Dr. Sylvia Owusu-Ansah, M.D., a pediatric emergency medicine physician at the UPMC Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh. The stomach and intestine have their own nervous system called the enteric nervous system.

“These nerves respond to the same stress hormones and neurotransmitters that our brains do,” Dr. Owusu-Ansah said.Stress and fatigue also decrease pain thresholds. So while a rested, happy child may not notice the subtleties in their GI tract, an anxious, tired child with functional abdominal pain may have a hypersensitive nervous system.“

The gut reports pain to the spine, which relays the pain signals to the brain when a child experiences stressors,” Dr. Owusu-Ansah said.

A major study examining children ages 4 and older found that in 90 percent of the kids, there was no diagnosable disease tied to their stomach pain. These children are still growing normally, they have a normal appetite, are able to sleep through the night and appear to be healthy apart from their abdominal pain.

Signs that there’s more to the pain than anxiety: vomiting, diarrhea, fevers, chills, unrelenting abdominal pain or weight loss.

In addition to lessening the stressful situation, Dr. Owusu-Ansah suggested adding natural fibers to the diet to help maintain a regular bowel regimen. This would prevent constipation, which can also result in abdominal pain, and can be worsened during stressful times.